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February 2006 Volume 2, Number 2

Instruments and Procedures

for Implementing Early Childhood

and Family Support Practices

t o o l s

CASE

Coaching Practices
Rating Scale
for Assessing
Adherence to

Evidence-Based
Early Childhood
Intervention
Practices

Introduction

This CASEtool includes a description of the development
and use of the Coaching Practices Rating Scale.
The scale is useful for assessing practitioner use of and
adherence to evidence-based coaching practices in early
childhood intervention (Rush & Shelden, 2005a, 2005b;
Rush, Shelden, & Hanft, 2003). This paper includes a
brief overview of coaching practices, a description of
the scale, and an explanation of how to use the scale
to determine the extent to which a practitioner uses the
characteristics of coaching as part of his or her work
with a family member or in supporting a colleague. The
reader is referred to Rush and Shelden (2005b) for more
in-depth information on the evidence to support this
practice and a description of coaching practice indicators.
Sources of information related to the characteristics
and consequences of coaching practices are described in
Rush and Shelden (2005a).

Coaching Practices

Coaching is an adult learning strategy that is used
to build the capacity of a parent, caregiver, or colleague
to improve existing abilities, develop new skills, and
gain a deeper understanding of his or her practices in
current and future situations (Hanft, Rush, & Shelden,
2004; Rush et al., 2003). As part of early childhood intervention,
coaching is conceptualized as a particular type
of capacity-building help giving practice that supports
people in using existing abilities and developing new
skills to attain desired child and family outcomes (Dunst
& Trivette, 1996; Dunst, Trivette, & LaPointe, 1992;
Rappaport, 1981; Trivette & Dunst, 1998). Additionally,

Dathan D. Rush
M�Lisa L. Shelden

This CASEtool includes a description of
the development and use of the Coaching
Practices Rating Scale for assessing
practitioner use of and adherence to evidence-
based coaching practices in early
childhood intervention. The scale is used
to determine the extent to which a practitioner
uses the characteristics of coaching
as part of his or her work with a family or a
colleague. A practitioner can use the scale
for self-reflection or joint discussion to assess
how his or her coaching practices are
consistent with evidence-based practice
indicators.

CASEtools is an electronic publication of the Center

for the Advanced Study of Excellence in Early
Childhood and Family Support Practices, Family,
Infant and Preschool Program, J. Iverson Riddle
Developmental Center, Morganton, NC. CASE is an
applied research center focusing on the characteristics
of evidence-based practices and methods for
promoting utilization of practices informed by research.

Center for the Advanced Study of Excellence

in Early Childhood and Family Support Practices

CASE

coaching promotes self-reflection and refinement of current
knowledge and skills by the person being coached.
The intended outcome of coaching is improved competence
and mastery of desired skills of the person being
coached (Doyle, 1999).

In early childhood intervention programs, practitioners
use coaching to build the capacity of family members
to promote their child�s learning and development
(Trivette & Dunst, 1998, 2000). As a result, children�s
primary caregivers gain competence when a coach supports
them in blending new or existing knowledge, skills,
and experience in ways that support and strengthen child
learning and development. Coaching is �not telling people
what to do, [but] giving them a chance to examine
what they are doing in light of their intentions� (Flaherty,
1999), p. xii). In this way, early childhood practitioners
who use coaching encourage action, reflection, and sharing
of information based on the parent�s intentions and
current level of knowledge and skills necessary to promote
the child�s participation in everyday family, community,
and early childhood settings (Bruder & Dunst,
1999; Hanft et al., 2004).

Definition of Coaching

Based on a research synthesis of coaching practices,
coaching is defined as:

An adult learning strategy in which the coach promotes
the learner�s ability to reflect on his or her
actions as a means to determine the effectiveness of
an action or practice and develop a plan for refinement
and use of the action in immediate and future
situations (Rush & Shelden, 2005b).

Coaching can be used to strengthen current knowledge,
promote the acquisition of new skills, and support continuous
self-assessment and learning of parents and colleagues
regarding how to promote and support child
learning and development. Coaches create a supportive
and encouraging environment in which the learner
(parent, colleague, etc.) and coach jointly examine and
reflect on current practices, apply new skills and competencies
in the context of feedback, and problem-solve
challenging situations. The goal of the coach is to assist
the person being coached in acquiring the competence
and confidence to engage in action, self reflection,
self correction, and use of new skills and strategies in
other situations as appropriate (Flaherty, 1999; Kinlaw,
1999).

Coaching Characteristics

A research synthesis of coaching practices studies
(Rush, 2003) identified five practice characteristics that
promote the use of newly learned practices or improvement
of existing skills. The coaching characteristics
identified in the research literature were: (1) Joint planning,
(2) observation, (3) action/practice, (4) reflection,
and (5) feedback.

Joint planning occurs as a part of all coaching sessions,
which typically involves discussion of what a parent
intends to do between coaching sessions and how
the parent will use the information discussed or skills
that were practiced. Observation refers to opportunities
where: (a) the practitioner directly observes an action by
the parent, which provides an opportunity for reflection
and discussion or (b) the parent observes modeling by
the practitioner where the practitioner builds upon what
the parent is already doing and demonstrates the use of
new strategies. After modeling occurs, the practitioner
and parent discuss how the parent�s actions or new strategies
match the parent�s intent and/or what research informs
us about child learning.

The characteristic of action provides opportunities
for the learner to use the information discussed with the
coach or to practice newly learned skills either during
or between coaching sessions. Reflection occurs following
an observation or action, and provides the parent an
opportunity to analyze current strategies and refine his
or her knowledge and skills. Feedback occurs after the
parent has the opportunity to reflect on his or her observations,
actions, or participatory opportunities to practice
new skills. As part of feedback, the practitioner may
affirm the parent�s reflections and/or add information to
deepen the parent�s understanding of the practice being
discussed.

Coaching Practices Rating Scale

The coaching model for supporting families and colleagues
described by Hanft et al. (2004) and Rush et al.
(2003) and the characteristics identified from a coaching
practices research synthesis (Rush, 2003), were used to
develop the Coaching Practices Rating Scale. The purpose
of the scale is to determine the extent to which a
practitioner is adhering to and using coaching practices
with either families or colleagues to strengthen competence
and confidence in using evidence-based early childhood
practices. The items on the Coaching Practices
Rating Scale were developed based on the findings of a
recent research synthesis on how people learn (Bransford
et al., 2000; Donovan, Bransford, & Pellegrino, 1999). A
item pool was developed by a work group of practitioners
at the Family, Infant and Preschool Program who
were examining how coaching could be used to sup

port parents� and practitioners� use of natural learning
environment practices (Dunst, Hamby, Trivette, Raab,
& Bruder, 2000; Dunst, Trivette, Humphries, Raab, &
Roper, 2001). The group examined each item for consistency
with the evidence, to eliminate redundancy, and to
ensure that items covered all five of the characteristics
of both coaching practices and how people learn (Bransford
et al., 2000; Donovan et al., 1999). The first version
of the Coaching Practices Rating Scale was reviewed by
two individuals familiar with the coaching literature who
provided feedback regarding item content. This information
was used by the work group to make changes to the
scale items. The scale was then piloted with six early
intervention teams in two states. Individual items were
modified based on the feedback from the team members.
The Coaching Practices Rating Scale and instructions
for use are included in the Appendix.

Administering the Scale

The scale is completed based on participation in or
observation of a single coaching session or a series of
coaching interactions between a practitioner and family
member, between two practitioners, or between a supervisor
and practitioner. For each item, the person scoring
the coaching session(s) indicates how often the practice
was used by the practitioner using the following scoring
system: 0 = No opportunity to measure or use the practice,
1 = Use of the practice none of the time, 2 = Use
of the practice some of the time, 3 = Use of the practice
about half of the time, 4 = Use of the practice most of
the time, 5 = Use of the practice all of the time. A rating
of zero (0) indicates that the rater was unable to observe
the behavior described or no opportunity occurred in a
coaching session(s) to rate the item, whereas a rating of
one (1) indicates that an opportunity for use of the behavior
occurred, but was not used by the practitioner.

The Coaching Practices Rating Scale can be used in
a number of ways. First, practitioners can use the scale
in a self-administration format to reflect on the extent to
which his or her interactions with a parent or colleague
were consistent with the characteristics of the practice.
The scale can also be used to assess and reflect on coaching
practices between a practitioner and family member,
two practitioners, or a supervisor and practitioner. This
type of reflection consists of identifying examples of
one�s coaching practices within these venues and determining
the extent to which the practices were consistent
or inconsistent with the coaching practice indicators and
why. Practitioners can use this information to identify
targets of change they might make to strengthen their
coaching skills and to ensure their practices are more
consistent with the coaching indicator described by the
scale items.

Second, the Coaching Practices Rating Scale can
be used by supervisors or colleagues following observation
of a coaching session to assist a practitioner to
reflect on his or her coaching practices. The supervisor
or colleague can use the scale items as benchmarks for
providing feedback about the observation. Follow-up
discussions can assist the practitioner in developing a
plan to change or improve his or her practices in ways
more consistent with the characteristics of coaching.

Third, the Coaching Practices Rating Scale can be
used for program evaluation purposes. Programs managers
can use the scale to collect and analyze data regarding
the extent to which staff members are using the characteristics
of coaching in their interactions with families
and to monitor adherence over time.

Conclusion

Coaching is a strategy for improving practices that
are consistent with available evidence on adult learning.
The Coaching Practices Rating Scale can help practitioners
determine the extent to which their interactions
with colleagues or family members are consistent with
coaching practices. The Coaching Practices Rating
Scale can be useful to practitioners and program managers
or directors for knowing if their implementation
of the practices is both consistent and used frequently
enough to promote the intended changes in the learner.
This instrument is important because it makes an objective
assessment of the extent to which the characteristics
of the practice are used and how variations in use
of the practices may be related to the expected benefits
or consequences. Whereas other literature and research
related to coaching provide descriptions of two or three
of the characteristics of coaching (Donegan, Ostrosky,
& Fowler, 2000; Flaherty, 1999; Hendrickson, Gardner,
Kaiser, & Riley, 1993; Kinlaw, 1999; Kurtts & Levin,
2000), this instrument measures all of the characteristics
described in various research studies.

The Coaching Practices Rating Scale provides a
way to measure multiple characteristics to allow a more
precise assessment of which coaching characteristics
matter most. In addition to the discussion of which features
of the practice of coaching are and are not important,
data collected using the scale should provide further
empirical evidence about adult learning in general. This
would contribute to further assessment and expansion of
the knowledge base related to the characteristics of how
people best learn.

References

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., Cocking, R. R., Donovan,
M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J. W. (Eds.).
(2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience,
and school. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.

Bruder, M. B., & Dunst, C. J. (1999). Expanding learning
opportunities for infants and toddlers in natural
environments: A chance to reconceptualize early intervention.
Zero to Three, 20(3), 34-36.

Donegan, M. M., Ostrosky, M. M., & Fowler, S. A.
(2000). Peer coaching: Teachers supporting teachers.
Young Exceptional Children, 3(3), 9-16.

Donovan, M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J. W.
(Eds.). (1999). How people learn: Bridging research
and practice. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.

Doyle, J. S. (1999). The business coach: A game plan for
the new work environment. New York: Wiley.

Dunst, C. J., Hamby, D., Trivette, C. M., Raab, M., &
Bruder, M. B. (2000). Everyday family and community
life and children�s naturally occurring learning
opportunities. Journal of Early Intervention, 23,
151-164.

Dunst, C. J., & Trivette, C. M. (1996). Empowerment,
effective helpgiving practices and family-centered
care. Pediatric Nursing, 22, 334-337, 343.

Dunst, C. J., Trivette, C. M., Humphries, T., Raab, M., &
Roper, N. (2001). Contrasting approaches to natural
learning environment interventions. Infants and
Young Children, 14(2), 48-63.

Dunst, C. J., Trivette, C. M., & LaPointe, N. (1992). Toward
clarification of the meaning and key elements
of empowerment. Family Science Review, 5(1/2),
111-130.

Flaherty, J. (1999). Coaching: Evoking excellence in
others. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Hanft, B. E., Rush, D. D., & Shelden, M. L. (2004).
Coaching families and colleagues in early childhood.
Baltimore: Brookes.

Hendrickson, J. M., Gardner, N., Kaiser, A., & Riley, A.
(1993). Evaluation of a social interaction coaching
program in an integrated day-care setting. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 213-225.

Kinlaw, D. C. (1999). Coaching for commitment: Interpersonal
strategies for obtaining superior performance
from individuals and teams. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

Kurtts, S. A., & Levin, B. B. (2000). Using peer coaching
with preservice teachers to develop reflective
practice and collegial support. Teaching Education,
11, 297-310.

Rappaport, J. (1981). In praise of paradox: A social
policy of empowerment over prevention. American
Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 1-25.

Rush, D. (2003). Effectiveness of coaching on adult
learning. Synthesis in preparation.

Rush, D., & Shelden, M. (2005a). Characteristics and
consequences of coaching. CASEmakers, 1(9), 1-3.
Available from http://www.fippcase.org/casemakers/
casemakers_vol1_no9.pdf

Rush, D., & Shelden, M. (2005b). Evidence-based definition
of coaching practices. CASEinPoint, 1(6),
1-6. Available at: http://www.fippcase.org/caseinpoint/
caseinpoint_vol1_no6.pdf

Rush, D. D., Shelden, M. L., & Hanft, B. E. (2003).
Coaching families and colleagues: A process for
collaboration in natural settings. Infants and Young
Children, 16, 33-47.

Trivette, C. M., & Dunst, C. J. (1998, December). Family-
centered helpgiving practices. Paper presented
at the 14th Annual Division for Early Childhood
International Conference on Children with Special
Needs, Chicago, IL.

Trivette, C. M., & Dunst, C. J. (2000). Recommended
practices in family-based practices. In S. Sandall,
M. E. McLean, & B. J. Smith (Eds.), DEC recommended
practices in early intervention/early childhood
special education (pp. 39-46). Longmont, CO:
Sopris West.

Authors

Dathan D. Rush, M.A. is Associate Director, Family
Infant and Preschool Program and Investigator, Center
for the Advanced Study of Early Childhood and Family
Support Practices, J. Iverson Riddle Developmental
Center, Morganton, North Carolina. M�Lisa L. Shelden,
Ph.D. is Director, Family Infant and Preschool Program
and Investigator, Center for the Advanced Study of Early
Childhood and Family Support Practices, J. Iverson
Riddle Developmental Center, Morganton, North Carolina.

Appendix, continued

Think about the coaching conversations for the time period covered. For each practice indicator, note how the practice was used.

Coaching Practice Indicators

Description of Practice

1. Acknowledged the learner�s existing knowledge and abilities as
the foundation for improving knowledge and skills.

2. Interacted with the learner in a nonjudgmental and constructive
manner during coaching conversations.

3. Identified with the learner the targeted skills and a timeline for
the coaching process.

4. Developed with the learner a plan for action/practice
necessary to achieve targeted skill(s) following each coaching
conversation.

5. Observed the learner demonstrate knowledge and understanding
of the targeted skill(s) or practice(s).

6. Observed the learner�s use of the targeted skill(s) or practice(s).

7. Created opportunities for the learner to observe the coach and/or
others model the target skill(s) or practice(s).

8. Promoted use of multiple opportunities for the learner to practice
implementation of the targeted skill(s) and practice(s) (e.g., role
plays, in context).

9. Used both planned and spontaneous opportunities to strengthen
the learner�s knowledge and skills.

10. Asked probing questions to examine the learner�s knowledge
and abilities.

11. Prompted learner reflection on his/her knowledge and use of the
targeted skill(s) and practice(s) compared against research-based
practice standards.

12. Provided feedback about the learner�s knowledge and skills
following the learner�s reflection on his/her performance.

13. Provided and/or promoting access to new information and
resources after the learner reflects on his/her performance.

14. Engaged the learner in reflection on the usefulness, effectiveness,
and need for continuation of the coaching process.

May be reproduced for practice purposes.

Appendix, continued

Coaching Practices Rating Scale

Administration Procedure

The Coaching Practices Rating Scale is used to
determine the extent to which a practitioner uses the
characteristics of coaching as part of his or her work
with a family member or in supporting a colleague.
A practitioner can use the scale for self-reflection or
joint discussion to assess the extent to which his or her
coaching practices are consistent with evidence-based
coaching practice indicators. The scale items are based
on the characteristics of how people learn and coaching
practices. The characteristics related to how people
learn include acknowledging and building on a learner�s
existing understanding and interacting with the learner
in a nonjudgmental way. The characteristics related to
coaching include the use of joint planning between the
learner and coach, observations by and of the learner,
participatory action on the part of the learner, promoting
the learner�s reflections on his or her actions, and feedback
by the coach based on the learner�s reflections.

The scale can be used by practitioners as a self-assessment
tool to reflect on the extent to which his or
her coaching practices are consistent with the coaching
characteristics. The scale can also be used by supervisors
or peers based on an observation of a practitioner�s
coaching interaction(s) to assist the practitioner in reflecting
on his or her coaching practices. When used
for this purpose, the supervisor or peer can also use the
scale to provide feedback related to the observation and
the practitioner�s own reflections related to the interaction
as well as to assist the practitioner in developing
a plan for changes to make his or her practices more
consistent with the characteristics of coaching.

The scale can be used for individual self-assessment
following a single or series of coaching interactions.
When used for supervision or peer-to-peer support,
completion of the scale follows an observation of
a coaching session between a practitioner and family,
two practitioners, or supervisor and practitioner. Program
managers can use the scale to evaluate the extent
to which staff members are using and adhering to coaching
practices.

The scale includes space to record the name of the
practitioner conducting the self-assessment or being
observed, the name of the person observing the practitioner
and completing the assessment (if applicable),
the date(s) of the interaction(s), and the period of time
covered by the ratings. The time period may include
a specific date if the self-assessment or observation is
based on only one coaching interaction or the period
may be the number of sessions and timeframe (e.g., four
coaching sessions). Each item is rated using the following
scale:

0�..No opportunity to measure or use the practice/
not applicable

1�.. Use of the practice none of the time

2�.. Use of the practice some of the time

3�.. Use of the practice about half of the time

4�.. Use of the practice most of the time

5�.. Use of the practice all of the time

When using the scale for conducting a self-assessment
or reflection on the observations of a colleague or
supervisee, the rater should do the following: (a) review
the items and consider the opportunities that were provided
for the practice to occur and the frequency with
which the person being rated actually demonstrated the
practice, (b) note the specific circumstances regarding
when and how the practices were used, (c) identify
missed opportunities for using the practices, (d) consider
reasons why practices could not be assessed, (e)
identify areas for improvement, (f) develop a plan for
improvement for use during interactions with the person
being coached in the interaction(s) documented on the
scale as well as interactions with other persons coached
by the practitioner. This information is recorded on the
reverse side of the Coaching Practices Rating Scale.