February 2006 Volume 2, Number 2

 


Instruments and Procedures

for Implementing Early Childhood

and Family Support Practices

t o o l s

CASE

Coaching Practices 
Rating Scale 
for Assessing 
Adherence to 

Evidence-Based 
Early Childhood 
Intervention 
Practices

Introduction

 This CASEtool includes a description of the development 
and use of the Coaching Practices Rating Scale. 
The scale is useful for assessing practitioner use of and 
adherence to evidence-based coaching practices in early 
childhood intervention (Rush & Shelden, 2005a, 2005b; 
Rush, Shelden, & Hanft, 2003). This paper includes a 
brief overview of coaching practices, a description of 
the scale, and an explanation of how to use the scale 
to determine the extent to which a practitioner uses the 
characteristics of coaching as part of his or her work 
with a family member or in supporting a colleague. The 
reader is referred to Rush and Shelden (2005b) for more 
in-depth information on the evidence to support this 
practice and a description of coaching practice indicators. 
Sources of information related to the characteristics 
and consequences of coaching practices are described in 
Rush and Shelden (2005a). 

Coaching Practices

 Coaching is an adult learning strategy that is used 
to build the capacity of a parent, caregiver, or colleague 
to improve existing abilities, develop new skills, and 
gain a deeper understanding of his or her practices in 
current and future situations (Hanft, Rush, & Shelden, 
2004; Rush et al., 2003). As part of early childhood intervention, 
coaching is conceptualized as a particular type 
of capacity-building help giving practice that supports 
people in using existing abilities and developing new 
skills to attain desired child and family outcomes (Dunst 
& Trivette, 1996; Dunst, Trivette, & LaPointe, 1992; 
Rappaport, 1981; Trivette & Dunst, 1998). Additionally, 

Dathan D. Rush 
M’Lisa L. Shelden

This CASEtool includes a description of 
the development and use of the Coaching 
Practices Rating Scale for assessing 
practitioner use of and adherence to evidence-
based coaching practices in early 
childhood intervention. The scale is used 
to determine the extent to which a practitioner 
uses the characteristics of coaching 
as part of his or her work with a family or a 
colleague. A practitioner can use the scale 
for self-reflection or joint discussion to assess 
how his or her coaching practices are 
consistent with evidence-based practice 
indicators. 

CASEtools is an electronic publication of the Center 

for the Advanced Study of Excellence in Early 
Childhood and Family Support Practices, Family, 
Infant and Preschool Program, J. Iverson Riddle 
Developmental Center, Morganton, NC. CASE is an 
applied research center focusing on the characteristics 
of evidence-based practices and methods for 
promoting utilization of practices informed by research.

 

Copyright © 2006

Center for the Advanced Study of Excellence

in Early Childhood and Family Support Practices



CASE 

coaching promotes self-reflection and refinement of current 
knowledge and skills by the person being coached. 
The intended outcome of coaching is improved competence 
and mastery of desired skills of the person being 
coached (Doyle, 1999). 

 In early childhood intervention programs, practitioners 
use coaching to build the capacity of family members 
to promote their child’s learning and development 
(Trivette & Dunst, 1998, 2000). As a result, children’s 
primary caregivers gain competence when a coach supports 
them in blending new or existing knowledge, skills, 
and experience in ways that support and strengthen child 
learning and development. Coaching is “not telling people 
what to do, [but] giving them a chance to examine 
what they are doing in light of their intentions” (Flaherty, 
1999), p. xii). In this way, early childhood practitioners 
who use coaching encourage action, reflection, and sharing 
of information based on the parent’s intentions and 
current level of knowledge and skills necessary to promote 
the child’s participation in everyday family, community, 
and early childhood settings (Bruder & Dunst, 
1999; Hanft et al., 2004). 

 

Definition of Coaching

 Based on a research synthesis of coaching practices, 
coaching is defined as:

An adult learning strategy in which the coach promotes 
the learner’s ability to reflect on his or her 
actions as a means to determine the effectiveness of 
an action or practice and develop a plan for refinement 
and use of the action in immediate and future 
situations (Rush & Shelden, 2005b).

Coaching can be used to strengthen current knowledge, 
promote the acquisition of new skills, and support continuous 
self-assessment and learning of parents and colleagues 
regarding how to promote and support child 
learning and development. Coaches create a supportive 
and encouraging environment in which the learner 
(parent, colleague, etc.) and coach jointly examine and 
reflect on current practices, apply new skills and competencies 
in the context of feedback, and problem-solve 
challenging situations. The goal of the coach is to assist 
the person being coached in acquiring the competence 
and confidence to engage in action, self reflection, 
self correction, and use of new skills and strategies in 
other situations as appropriate (Flaherty, 1999; Kinlaw, 
1999). 

Coaching Characteristics

 A research synthesis of coaching practices studies 
(Rush, 2003) identified five practice characteristics that 
promote the use of newly learned practices or improvement 
of existing skills. The coaching characteristics 
identified in the research literature were: (1) Joint planning, 
(2) observation, (3) action/practice, (4) reflection, 
and (5) feedback. 

 Joint planning occurs as a part of all coaching sessions, 
which typically involves discussion of what a parent 
intends to do between coaching sessions and how 
the parent will use the information discussed or skills 
that were practiced. Observation refers to opportunities 
where: (a) the practitioner directly observes an action by 
the parent, which provides an opportunity for reflection 
and discussion or (b) the parent observes modeling by 
the practitioner where the practitioner builds upon what 
the parent is already doing and demonstrates the use of 
new strategies. After modeling occurs, the practitioner 
and parent discuss how the parent’s actions or new strategies 
match the parent’s intent and/or what research informs 
us about child learning. 

 The characteristic of action provides opportunities 
for the learner to use the information discussed with the 
coach or to practice newly learned skills either during 
or between coaching sessions. Reflection occurs following 
an observation or action, and provides the parent an 
opportunity to analyze current strategies and refine his 
or her knowledge and skills. Feedback occurs after the 
parent has the opportunity to reflect on his or her observations, 
actions, or participatory opportunities to practice 
new skills. As part of feedback, the practitioner may 
affirm the parent’s reflections and/or add information to 
deepen the parent’s understanding of the practice being 
discussed. 

Coaching Practices Rating Scale

 The coaching model for supporting families and colleagues 
described by Hanft et al. (2004) and Rush et al. 
(2003) and the characteristics identified from a coaching 
practices research synthesis (Rush, 2003), were used to 
develop the Coaching Practices Rating Scale. The purpose 
of the scale is to determine the extent to which a 
practitioner is adhering to and using coaching practices 
with either families or colleagues to strengthen competence 
and confidence in using evidence-based early childhood 
practices. The items on the Coaching Practices 
Rating Scale were developed based on the findings of a 
recent research synthesis on how people learn (Bransford 
et al., 2000; Donovan, Bransford, & Pellegrino, 1999). A 
item pool was developed by a work group of practitioners 
at the Family, Infant and Preschool Program who 
were examining how coaching could be used to sup



port parents’ and practitioners’ use of natural learning 
environment practices (Dunst, Hamby, Trivette, Raab, 
& Bruder, 2000; Dunst, Trivette, Humphries, Raab, & 
Roper, 2001). The group examined each item for consistency 
with the evidence, to eliminate redundancy, and to 
ensure that items covered all five of the characteristics 
of both coaching practices and how people learn (Bransford 
et al., 2000; Donovan et al., 1999). The first version 
of the Coaching Practices Rating Scale was reviewed by 
two individuals familiar with the coaching literature who 
provided feedback regarding item content. This information 
was used by the work group to make changes to the 
scale items. The scale was then piloted with six early 
intervention teams in two states. Individual items were 
modified based on the feedback from the team members. 
The Coaching Practices Rating Scale and instructions 
for use are included in the Appendix. 

Administering the Scale

 The scale is completed based on participation in or 
observation of a single coaching session or a series of 
coaching interactions between a practitioner and family 
member, between two practitioners, or between a supervisor 
and practitioner. For each item, the person scoring 
the coaching session(s) indicates how often the practice 
was used by the practitioner using the following scoring 
system: 0 = No opportunity to measure or use the practice, 
1 = Use of the practice none of the time, 2 = Use 
of the practice some of the time, 3 = Use of the practice 
about half of the time, 4 = Use of the practice most of 
the time, 5 = Use of the practice all of the time. A rating 
of zero (0) indicates that the rater was unable to observe 
the behavior described or no opportunity occurred in a 
coaching session(s) to rate the item, whereas a rating of 
one (1) indicates that an opportunity for use of the behavior 
occurred, but was not used by the practitioner. 

 The Coaching Practices Rating Scale can be used in 
a number of ways. First, practitioners can use the scale 
in a self-administration format to reflect on the extent to 
which his or her interactions with a parent or colleague 
were consistent with the characteristics of the practice. 
The scale can also be used to assess and reflect on coaching 
practices between a practitioner and family member, 
two practitioners, or a supervisor and practitioner. This 
type of reflection consists of identifying examples of 
one’s coaching practices within these venues and determining 
the extent to which the practices were consistent 
or inconsistent with the coaching practice indicators and 
why. Practitioners can use this information to identify 
targets of change they might make to strengthen their 
coaching skills and to ensure their practices are more 
consistent with the coaching indicator described by the 
scale items.

 Second, the Coaching Practices Rating Scale can 
be used by supervisors or colleagues following observation 
of a coaching session to assist a practitioner to 
reflect on his or her coaching practices. The supervisor 
or colleague can use the scale items as benchmarks for 
providing feedback about the observation. Follow-up 
discussions can assist the practitioner in developing a 
plan to change or improve his or her practices in ways 
more consistent with the characteristics of coaching. 

 Third, the Coaching Practices Rating Scale can be 
used for program evaluation purposes. Programs managers 
can use the scale to collect and analyze data regarding 
the extent to which staff members are using the characteristics 
of coaching in their interactions with families 
and to monitor adherence over time.

Conclusion

 Coaching is a strategy for improving practices that 
are consistent with available evidence on adult learning. 
The Coaching Practices Rating Scale can help practitioners 
determine the extent to which their interactions 
with colleagues or family members are consistent with 
coaching practices. The Coaching Practices Rating 
Scale can be useful to practitioners and program managers 
or directors for knowing if their implementation 
of the practices is both consistent and used frequently 
enough to promote the intended changes in the learner. 
This instrument is important because it makes an objective 
assessment of the extent to which the characteristics 
of the practice are used and how variations in use 
of the practices may be related to the expected benefits 
or consequences. Whereas other literature and research 
related to coaching provide descriptions of two or three 
of the characteristics of coaching (Donegan, Ostrosky, 
& Fowler, 2000; Flaherty, 1999; Hendrickson, Gardner, 
Kaiser, & Riley, 1993; Kinlaw, 1999; Kurtts & Levin, 
2000), this instrument measures all of the characteristics 
described in various research studies. 

 The Coaching Practices Rating Scale provides a 
way to measure multiple characteristics to allow a more 
precise assessment of which coaching characteristics 
matter most. In addition to the discussion of which features 
of the practice of coaching are and are not important, 
data collected using the scale should provide further 
empirical evidence about adult learning in general. This 
would contribute to further assessment and expansion of 
the knowledge base related to the characteristics of how 
people best learn.



References

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., Cocking, R. R., Donovan, 
M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J. W. (Eds.). 
(2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, 
and school. Washington, DC: National Academy 
Press. 

Bruder, M. B., & Dunst, C. J. (1999). Expanding learning 
opportunities for infants and toddlers in natural 
environments: A chance to reconceptualize early intervention. 
Zero to Three, 20(3), 34-36. 

Donegan, M. M., Ostrosky, M. M., & Fowler, S. A. 
(2000). Peer coaching: Teachers supporting teachers. 
Young Exceptional Children, 3(3), 9-16. 

Donovan, M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J. W. 
(Eds.). (1999). How people learn: Bridging research 
and practice. Washington, DC: National Academy 
Press. 

Doyle, J. S. (1999). The business coach: A game plan for 
the new work environment. New York: Wiley. 

Dunst, C. J., Hamby, D., Trivette, C. M., Raab, M., & 
Bruder, M. B. (2000). Everyday family and community 
life and children’s naturally occurring learning 
opportunities. Journal of Early Intervention, 23, 
151-164.

Dunst, C. J., & Trivette, C. M. (1996). Empowerment, 
effective helpgiving practices and family-centered 
care. Pediatric Nursing, 22, 334-337, 343.

Dunst, C. J., Trivette, C. M., Humphries, T., Raab, M., & 
Roper, N. (2001). Contrasting approaches to natural 
learning environment interventions. Infants and 
Young Children, 14(2), 48-63.

Dunst, C. J., Trivette, C. M., & LaPointe, N. (1992). Toward 
clarification of the meaning and key elements 
of empowerment. Family Science Review, 5(1/2), 
111-130.

Flaherty, J. (1999). Coaching: Evoking excellence in 
others. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Hanft, B. E., Rush, D. D., & Shelden, M. L. (2004). 
Coaching families and colleagues in early childhood. 
Baltimore: Brookes.

Hendrickson, J. M., Gardner, N., Kaiser, A., & Riley, A. 
(1993). Evaluation of a social interaction coaching 
program in an integrated day-care setting. Journal 
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 213-225.

Kinlaw, D. C. (1999). Coaching for commitment: Interpersonal 
strategies for obtaining superior performance 
from individuals and teams. San Francisco: 
Jossey-Bass. 

Kurtts, S. A., & Levin, B. B. (2000). Using peer coaching 
with preservice teachers to develop reflective 
practice and collegial support. Teaching Education, 
11, 297-310.

Rappaport, J. (1981). In praise of paradox: A social 
policy of empowerment over prevention. American 
Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 1-25.

Rush, D. (2003). Effectiveness of coaching on adult 
learning. Synthesis in preparation.

Rush, D., & Shelden, M. (2005a). Characteristics and 
consequences of coaching. CASEmakers, 1(9), 1-3. 
Available from http://www.fippcase.org/casemakers/
casemakers_vol1_no9.pdf

Rush, D., & Shelden, M. (2005b). Evidence-based definition 
of coaching practices. CASEinPoint, 1(6), 
1-6. Available at: http://www.fippcase.org/caseinpoint/
caseinpoint_vol1_no6.pdf

Rush, D. D., Shelden, M. L., & Hanft, B. E. (2003). 
Coaching families and colleagues: A process for 
collaboration in natural settings. Infants and Young 
Children, 16, 33-47.

Trivette, C. M., & Dunst, C. J. (1998, December). Family-
centered helpgiving practices. Paper presented 
at the 14th Annual Division for Early Childhood 
International Conference on Children with Special 
Needs, Chicago, IL.

Trivette, C. M., & Dunst, C. J. (2000). Recommended 
practices in family-based practices. In S. Sandall, 
M. E. McLean, & B. J. Smith (Eds.), DEC recommended 
practices in early intervention/early childhood 
special education (pp. 39-46). Longmont, CO: 
Sopris West. 

Authors

 Dathan D. Rush, M.A. is Associate Director, Family 
Infant and Preschool Program and Investigator, Center 
for the Advanced Study of Early Childhood and Family 
Support Practices, J. Iverson Riddle Developmental 
Center, Morganton, North Carolina. M’Lisa L. Shelden, 
Ph.D. is Director, Family Infant and Preschool Program 
and Investigator, Center for the Advanced Study of Early 
Childhood and Family Support Practices, J. Iverson 
Riddle Developmental Center, Morganton, North Carolina. 


 



Appendix, continued

Think about the coaching conversations for the time period covered. For each practice indicator, note how the practice was used.

Coaching Practice Indicators

Description of Practice

1. Acknowledged the learner’s existing knowledge and abilities as 
the foundation for improving knowledge and skills.

2. Interacted with the learner in a nonjudgmental and constructive 
manner during coaching conversations.

3. Identified with the learner the targeted skills and a timeline for 
the coaching process.

4. Developed with the learner a plan for action/practice 
necessary to achieve targeted skill(s) following each coaching 
conversation.

5. Observed the learner demonstrate knowledge and understanding 
of the targeted skill(s) or practice(s).

6. Observed the learner’s use of the targeted skill(s) or practice(s).

7. Created opportunities for the learner to observe the coach and/or 
others model the target skill(s) or practice(s).

8. Promoted use of multiple opportunities for the learner to practice 
implementation of the targeted skill(s) and practice(s) (e.g., role 
plays, in context).

9. Used both planned and spontaneous opportunities to strengthen 
the learner’s knowledge and skills.

10. Asked probing questions to examine the learner’s knowledge 
and abilities.

11. Prompted learner reflection on his/her knowledge and use of the 
targeted skill(s) and practice(s) compared against research-based 
practice standards.

12. Provided feedback about the learner’s knowledge and skills 
following the learner’s reflection on his/her performance.

13. Provided and/or promoting access to new information and 
resources after the learner reflects on his/her performance.

14. Engaged the learner in reflection on the usefulness, effectiveness, 
and need for continuation of the coaching process.





Copyright . 2006 • Family, Infant and Preschool Program • All rights reserved.

May be reproduced for practice purposes.



Appendix, continued

Coaching Practices Rating Scale

Administration Procedure

 The Coaching Practices Rating Scale is used to 
determine the extent to which a practitioner uses the 
characteristics of coaching as part of his or her work 
with a family member or in supporting a colleague. 
A practitioner can use the scale for self-reflection or 
joint discussion to assess the extent to which his or her 
coaching practices are consistent with evidence-based 
coaching practice indicators. The scale items are based 
on the characteristics of how people learn and coaching 
practices. The characteristics related to how people 
learn include acknowledging and building on a learner’s 
existing understanding and interacting with the learner 
in a nonjudgmental way. The characteristics related to 
coaching include the use of joint planning between the 
learner and coach, observations by and of the learner, 
participatory action on the part of the learner, promoting 
the learner’s reflections on his or her actions, and feedback 
by the coach based on the learner’s reflections.

 The scale can be used by practitioners as a self-assessment 
tool to reflect on the extent to which his or 
her coaching practices are consistent with the coaching 
characteristics. The scale can also be used by supervisors 
or peers based on an observation of a practitioner’s 
coaching interaction(s) to assist the practitioner in reflecting 
on his or her coaching practices. When used 
for this purpose, the supervisor or peer can also use the 
scale to provide feedback related to the observation and 
the practitioner’s own reflections related to the interaction 
as well as to assist the practitioner in developing 
a plan for changes to make his or her practices more 
consistent with the characteristics of coaching.

 The scale can be used for individual self-assessment 
following a single or series of coaching interactions. 
When used for supervision or peer-to-peer support, 
completion of the scale follows an observation of 
a coaching session between a practitioner and family, 
two practitioners, or supervisor and practitioner. Program 
managers can use the scale to evaluate the extent 
to which staff members are using and adhering to coaching 
practices.

 The scale includes space to record the name of the 
practitioner conducting the self-assessment or being 
observed, the name of the person observing the practitioner 
and completing the assessment (if applicable), 
the date(s) of the interaction(s), and the period of time 
covered by the ratings. The time period may include 
a specific date if the self-assessment or observation is 
based on only one coaching interaction or the period 
may be the number of sessions and timeframe (e.g., four 
coaching sessions). Each item is rated using the following 
scale:

 0…..No opportunity to measure or use the practice/
not applicable

 1….. Use of the practice none of the time

 2….. Use of the practice some of the time

 3….. Use of the practice about half of the time

 4….. Use of the practice most of the time

 5….. Use of the practice all of the time

 When using the scale for conducting a self-assessment 
or reflection on the observations of a colleague or 
supervisee, the rater should do the following: (a) review 
the items and consider the opportunities that were provided 
for the practice to occur and the frequency with 
which the person being rated actually demonstrated the 
practice, (b) note the specific circumstances regarding 
when and how the practices were used, (c) identify 
missed opportunities for using the practices, (d) consider 
reasons why practices could not be assessed, (e) 
identify areas for improvement, (f) develop a plan for 
improvement for use during interactions with the person 
being coached in the interaction(s) documented on the 
scale as well as interactions with other persons coached 
by the practitioner. This information is recorded on the 
reverse side of the Coaching Practices Rating Scale.